Coals mining an imperative necessity with environmental side effects like any other extraction and production process.

Coal mining is one of Africa’s most dependant features for the continents economy as a whole. This essay uncovers the controversial intriguing topic of coal mining and the effect it has on the environment through the implications of acid mine drainage.  From South Africa across the globe acid mine drainage is a complex environmental issue which has been highlighted and forgotten by the media.

Coal is a black graphite fossil fuel, which is composed by a variety of compounds originating from prehistoric vegetation and carbonized fibers that originally accumulated in swamps and peat bogs. (World Coal Association. 2012). Coal is categorized as a fuel that essentially means it is made up of energy. This energy comes from the process called photosynthesis. Millions of years ago plants would have absorbed energy from the sun and over time died. When decaying plants are unable to release the energy and this intern is favorable to coal formation.

According to the World Coal Association the first documented coal deposits were formed during the “ Carboniferous Period – known as the first coal age which was about 290 to 360 million years ago.”  During this time there were great changes in the earths formation. Movement in the earths crust and a build up of slit and other sediments buried swamps and peat blogs.  This development “caused physical and chemical changes in the vegetation, transforming it into pleat and then into coal. (Word Coal Association. 2012).

COAL...MINES...

With coal there is a variety of quality and type and this is based on a ranking system, which is determined by varying types of vegetation, the depth of the coal, temperatures and pressures at the depth and the length the coal has been forming in the site of deposit. Coalification is the change and process coal goes through as it matures. This is important, as it will determine the physical and chemical properties therefore ranking the coal in quality.  As well as this the ranking system is determined by the degree of transformation from the original plant material to carbon. The types of coal mined are based on the ranking system. Either highly ranked and therefore high in carbon and heat value but low in hydrogen and oxygen.

(Word Coal Association. 2012).

Mining is the process of extracting coal, minerals or natural resources. In correlation to this essay coal mining specifically is extracted from the earth in various ways. When deciding on mining coal a professional team decides on the mining method based on the geological coal deposit. Coal can be extracted through underground, surface or controversial methods.  Underground mining involves drilling a shaft down to the coal line. This process can be done by a room and pillar method, which involves leaving lines/pillars of coal to hold the mine roof in place. The longwall method uses hydraulic roof supports. Surface, open pit or strip mining is the removal of soil and rock from a designated area through explosions therefore exposing the coal near the surface. Once this is done the coal is removed through machinery and labor and transported to the permitted destination. Lastly controversial mining is an exclusive method where by the company blasts off mountaintops to reveal the coal. “Mountaintop removal practices are common in Kentucky, West Virginia, and Virginia; areas in which some former mountains have been transformed into flat or rolling hill terrain.” (Green Peace. Mining Impacts. 15 April 2010).

THE BIG BOYS

Being a natural resource coal is extremely valuable to its owners. According to the World Coal Association over 6185 million tonnes of coal is currently being produced worldwide. The top mining countries are China, the USA, India, Australia, and South Africa. In most cases countries mine coal for personal usage leaving only a small percentage to export.   According to the International Energy Agency in 2010 South Africa was producing 225 million tonnes of coal.

Mining in South Africa is the cornerstone of the economy. There are a number of coalfields across South Africa. The main geographical sites are located in Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Free State, Kwazulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape province. Most of the mines are developed around concentrated areas and towns such as Witbank, Ermelo, Waterberg, Highveld and Secunda. South Africa has a substantial amount of coal reserves, which are found at varying depths around the centre basin of the country. The industry sees both surface mining and underground mining exploiting the differentiated coal for specific purposes. The Witbank coalfield at present is the most important, bringing in large quantities of coal. However “South Africa has some 6000 derelict and ownerless mines,” Fourie said. “The problem is that more and more mines are coming near the end of their lives.”

(Radio Netherlands WorldWide Africa. Miriam Mannak. 10.02.12).

A few dominant private companies concentrate South Africa’s coal mining sector. These include Anglo America, Xstrata, BHP (Billiton Energy Coal South Africa), Sasol and Exxaro. Anglo America owns eight coalmines in South Africa in the Witbank area; some of these are Goedehoop, Greenside, Klienkopje and Landau. As well as this the company plans to invest in the Waterberg area. Xstrata has a mix of 13 underground mines and is considered the 3^rd largest company exporting coal out of South Africa. BHP is the largest coal exporter for South Africa. The company operates in Doglas, Khatala, Klipspruit and Middleburg which all fall into the Mpumalanga Province. BHP mainly exports to South America, Europe, Far East and parts of Africa. This company also has a large contract with Eskom, South Africa’s local utility company for electricity. Sasol are involved with coal mining mostly for petrochemical industries and the conversion of coal to liquids. The company has mines in the Highveld, and the North East of Secunda. Their mine Thubelisha is said to reach its full capacity by 2015 and hold a lifespan of 32 to 35 years. 

(Africa Mining Projects, Ederhand).

BENEFITS OF MINNING

The mining “sector accounts for roughly one third of the market capitalization of the JSE, and continues to act as a magnet for foreign investment in the country.”

(South Africa.info- 13.04.12). South Africa uses percentage of its coal harvesting to supply energy and electricity generation. As well as this the coal is used for petrochemical industries such as Sasol, for metallurgical industries such as Iscor and for domestic personal usage.

 Eskom is one of the world largest electricity producers. The electricity is generated through coal fire stations, which are located near most coal suppliers. Government owned Eskom dominates the South African power industry and the National Energy Regulator of South Africa regulates their prices. The power stations use unconventional pulverized coal technology with below average thermal efficiencies. In the past Eskom has relied on long-term contracts. However over time coal quality has been decreasing and most of these contracts have been exporting the higher-ranking coal leaving South Africa with poor quality. Which in tern has affected the production process as Eskom has found itself buying from smaller companies at smaller amounts. Therefore this also affected electricity prices.

In 2009, according to the Chamber of Mines of South Africa, the industry contributed:

•                8.8% directly, and another 10% indirectly, to the country's gross domestic product (GDP).

•                Over 50% of merchandise exports, if secondary beneficiated mineral exports are counted.

•                About 1-million jobs (500 000 directly).

•                About 18% of gross investment (10% directly).

•                Approximately 30% of capital inflows into the economy via the financial account of the balance of payments.

•                93% of the country's electricity generating capacity.

•                About 30% of the country's liquid fuel supply.

•                Between 10% and 20% of direct corporate tax receipts (together worth R10.5-billion).

“In 2009, South Africa's mining industry was the largest contributor by value to black economic empowerment (BEE) in the economy, in terms of the value of BEE transactions completed.”  (South Africa.info - 13.04.12). 

O WELL..WE NEED IT!!!

However even though coal mining is a major necessity for South Africa and many parts of the world it does have a detrimental impact on the environment. Mining has a number of negative side effects, which in terms of the new ‘green’ trend have been highlighted and taken to the next extreme. Coal mining disturbs the geological formation of natural ecosystems and their processes. The establishment of mines in many places has also contributed to the relocation of whole town. This can be seen in Mozambique near Tete province. As well as this there is the on going battle of the Cradle of Man Kind in South Africa against mining companies. A group of mining companies intend to claim Magaliesburg and the heritage site.

The external pollution causes changes in aquatic life, the air quality in the surrounding area, erosion, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions therefore a contributor to ‘climate change’ and Acid Mine Drainage.

The current increasing environmental effect of coal mining is that of acid mine drainage. This topic has become a ‘hot’ discussion as more environmentalists are lobbing for mining companies to have and implement high safety regulations in regards to their labor and their impact on the environment. This essentially entails protecting the conditions in which a person, animal or plant lives and operates according to the discourses created. 

CHEMISTRY NIGHTMARE!!!!!!

CHEMICAL MAKE-UP

Pyrite Oxidation: 4 FeS₂ + 15 O₂ +14 H₂O 􀂼 4 Fe(OH)₃ (s) 􀂾 + 8 H₂SO₄ (1) 

Pyrite + Oxygen + Water 􀂼 Ferric Hydroxide + Sulfuric Acid 

Ferrous Oxidation: 4 Fe²⁺ + O₂ + 4 H⁺ 􀂼 4 Fe³⁺ + 2 H₂O (2) 

Ferrous Iron + Oxygen + Protons 􀂼 Ferric Iron + Water 

Iron Hydrolysis: 4 Fe³⁺ + 12 H₂O 􀂼 4 Fe(OH)₃(s) 􀂾 + 12 H⁺ (3) 

Ferric Iron +Water 􀂼 Ferric Hydroxide + Protons 

Additionally,

Pyrite Oxidation: FeS₂ + 14 Fe³⁺ + 8 H₂O 􀂼 15 Fe²⁺ + 2 SO₄^2- + 16 H⁺ (4) 

Pyrite + Ferric Iron + Water 􀂼 Ferrous Iron + Sulfate + Protons 

Acid Mine Drainage has proven to have significant environmental challenges as its roots stem from the process of mining certain natural resources. The mining process exposes iron sulfide and unremoved coal contained in sandstone. Therefore results in natural oxidation of the sulphide minerals being exposed to the atmosphere and water forming soluble hyrdous iron sulphates. The water acts as a medium for the transfer of oxidation to occur. As well as this there are forms of bacteria that contribute. The end results are yellow and white crystals that hold a low PH therefore highly acidic concentrations of metals and sulphates content around Ph 2.3 to 6.5. (Microbiology of fly acid mine drainage co-disposal process. Eloise M.R.Kuhn. November 2005).

(PERSPECTIVE)

Acid Mine drainage affects the surface and underground water systems while also impacting on land usage through agriculture.  The acidity and metal toxity has an obvious wide spread side effect impacting aquatic life and riverbeds far beyond the original source. As mentioned before the soluble deposits result in an orange reddish colour. This sedimentation occurs due to the precipitation of iron oxides and hydroxides. It is often called Ochre found at the bottom covering the riverbeds with fine silt therefore aquatic organisms can no longer feed. This is disruptive to the life cycle of animals and plants as in the environmental world everything is closely linked and therefore impacting on one another. Once in the river systems the acidic solubles (acid mine drainage) can be transported in the underground water systems or rivers nation wide. This rises the possibility of contaminating drinking water and reaching the river mouths and therefore having negative effects on marine life.   

(Acid Mine Drainage and its control. Pertha Das Sharma).

From the beginning mining has had an effect on the environment. The exploration of field surveys and research involves clearing of land and drilling which essentially has the risk of contributing to exposing high metal content. Once exposed these metals begin the process of oxidization and ultimately lead to acid mine drainage. On mine sites there are storage ponds from clearing the exploded soils, which in tern may become contaminated and then seep into the water systems. (Acid Mine Drainage and its control. Pertha Das Sharma). 

Pretty Little Facts...

“Many countries require reclamation plans for coal mining sites, undoing all the environmental damages to water supplies, destroyed habitats, and poor air quality is a long and problematic task. This land disturbance is on a vast scale. In the US, between 1930 and 2000, coal mining altered about 2.4 million hectares [5.9 million acres] of natural landscape, most of it originally forest. Attempts to re-seed land destroyed by coal mining is difficult because the mining process has so thoroughly damaged the soil. For example, in Montana, replanting projects had a success rate of only 20-30 percent, while in some places in Colorado only 10 percent of oak aspen seedlings that were planted survived.”(Green Peace. Mining Impacts. 15 April 2010).

There have been recent case studies document in Ohio America and in the past in Pennsylvania America. The university of Pennsylvania uncovers a case study based on acid mine drainage caused by abandoned mines. The Department of Environmental Protection in the US is now have to deal with the long and tedious rehabilitation of streams and rivers in the West Branch Schuylkill and Upper Schuylkill. (Tara Sadak. 4.1.08).

It is estimated that nearly 19, 300 kilometers of streams and rivers and 72,000 hectares of lakes have been polluted world wide through mining operations. This was documented in 2005. It is only imaginable how these figures must be today. As the media of breaking headlines “contaminated water world wide” shocked people and the outburst and trend to fix this has been phenomenal. (Johnson and Hallberg, 2005).

“In China, coal mining has degraded the quality of land of an estimated 3.2 million hectares, according to a 2004 estimate. The overall restoration rate (the ratio of reclaimed land area to the total degraded land area) of mine wasteland was only about 10–12 percent.”(Green Peace. Mining Impacts. 15 April 2010).

““Some of South Africa’s mineral-rich areas are home to the country’s most vulnerable communities.” said Mamphela Ramphele, chairperson of the gold-mining company Gold Fields and a director at mining conglomerate Anglo American, during the world’s largest mining investment conference Mining Indaba 2012, which took place from 6 to 9 February in Cape Town, South Africa. “A lot of firms say that the problems linked to mining are beyond their control. They should however realize and acknowledge that the extraction of minerals have hefty social costs“. Companies must own the problem and use their innovative power to find solutions. Sustainability should be one of their strategic imperatives and companies should contribute to development.”” (Radio Netherlands WorldWide Africa. Miriam Mannak. 10.02.12).